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How recep- endocytic vesicles that pinch off at depressions in the plasma tors bring proteins and particles into cells cheap 160 mg super p-force oral jelly fast delivery zyrtec causes erectile dysfunction. Fluid-phase endocytosis is the nonspecific up- fusible substance with water discount super p-force oral jelly 160mg with amex erectile dysfunction books download free. These different factors appear take of the extracellular fluid and all its dissolved solutes. In its simplest formulation, Fick’s law can be written as: pinched off inside the cell. The amount of extracellular ma- J DA (C1 C2)/ X terial internalized by this process is directly proportional to its concentration in the extracellular solution. Receptor- where J is the flow of solute from region 1 to region 2 in the mediated endocytosis is a more efficient process that uses solution, D is the diffusion coefficient of the solute and receptors on the cell surface to bind specific molecules. The coated pits pinch off continually to form en- X is the distance between regions 1 and 2. J is expressed docytic vesicles, providing the cell with a mechanism for in units of amount of substance per unit area per unit time, 2 rapid internalization of a large amount of a specific mole- for example, mol/cm per hour, and is also referred to as the cule without the need to endocytose large volumes of ex- solute flux. The receptors also aid the cellular uptake of molecules present at low concentrations outside the cell. Solutes can enter or Receptor-mediated endocytosis is the mechanism by which leave a cell by diffusing passively across the plasma mem- cells take up a variety of important molecules, including brane. The principal force driving the diffusion of an un- hormones; growth factors; and serum transport proteins, charged solute is the difference of concentration between such as transferrin (an iron carrier). In the case such as diphtheria toxin and certain viruses, also enter cells of an electrically charged solute, such as an ion, diffusion is by this pathway. Many cells synthesize important macromol- tential of most living cells is negative inside the cell relative ecules that are destined for exocytosis or export from the to the outside. These molecules are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum, modified in the Golgi apparatus, and packed in- side transport vesicles. The vesicles move to the cell sur- face, fuse with the cell membrane, and release their con- tents outside the cell (see Fig. Secretion of mucus by goblet cells in the small intestine is a specific example. In this case, exo- cytosis follows the constitutive pathway, which is present in all cells. In other cells, macromolecules are stored inside the cell in secretory vesicles. These vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and release their contents only when a spe- cific extracellular stimulus arrives at the cell membrane. This pathway, known as the regulated pathway, is respon- sible for the rapid “on-demand” secretion of many specific hormones, neurotransmitters, and digestive enzymes. The Passive Movement of Solutes Tends to Equilibrate Concentrations FIGURE 2. Any solute will tend to uniformly oc- molecules through the lipid bilayer. This movement, example, the diffusion of a solute across a plasma membrane is known as diffusion, is due to the spontaneous Brownian driven by the difference in concentration on the two sides of the (random) movement that all molecules experience and that membrane. Initially, random movement from left to right across explains many everyday observations. Sugar diffuses in cof- the membrane is more frequent than movement in the opposite fee, lemon diffuses in tea, and a drop of ink placed in a glass direction because there are more molecules on the left side. The net results in a net movement of solute from left to right across the result of diffusion is the movement of substances according membrane until the concentration of solute is the same on both to their difference in concentrations, from regions of high sides. At this point, equilibrium (no net movement) is reached be- concentration to regions of low concentration. Diffusion is cause solute movement from left to right is balanced by equal an effective way for substances to move short distances. CHAPTER 2 The Plasma Membrane, Membrane Transport, and the Resting Membrane Potential 23 Diffusion across a membrane has no preferential direc- and the difference in concentration between the two sides tion; it can occur from the outside of the cell toward the in- of the membrane is linear (Fig. The higher the differ- side or from the inside of the cell toward the outside. For ence in concentration (C1 C2), the greater the amount of any substance, it is possible to measure the permeability substance crossing the membrane per unit time. Fick’s law for the diffusion of an uncharged solute solutes of physiological importance, such as sugars and across a membrane can be written as: amino acids, the relationship between transport rate and concentration difference follows a curve that reaches a J PA (C1 C2 plateau (Fig.

Pharynx Receives bolus from oral cavity; autonomically continues deglutition of bolus to esophagus Objective 4 Describe the arrangement of the serous Esophagus Transports bolus to stomach by peristalsis; lower membranes within the abdominal cavity buy 160 mg super p-force oral jelly overnight delivery erectile dysfunction morning wood. These organs are supported and covered by down chyme; absorbs nutrients; transports wastes serous membranes that line the cavities of the trunk and cover through peristalsis to large intestine; prohibits the organs within these cavities generic super p-force oral jelly 160 mg mastercard erectile dysfunction pills made in china. Serous membranes are com- backflow of intestinal wastes from large intestine posed of simple squamous epithelium, portions of which are rein- Large intestine Receives undigested wastes from small intestine; absorbs forced with connective tissue. Serous membranes secrete a water and electrolytes; forms, stores, and expels feces when activated by a defecation reflex lubricating serous fluid that continuously moistens the associ- ated organs. The parietal portion of the serous membrane lines the body wall, and a visceral portion covers the internal organs. As de- scribed in the previous chapter, the serous membranes associated with the lungs are called pleurae (see fig. The serous It usually takes about 24 to 48 hours for food to travel the membranes of the abdominal cavity are called peritoneal mem- length of the GI tract. Along the posterior abdominal cavity, the pari- specific functions in preparing food for utilization (table 18. The mesentery so many people are malnourished that eating patterns have supports the GI tract, at the same time allowing the small intes- become a critical public health concern. Grossly overweight people are at greater risk for cardiovas- ture for the passage of intestinal nerves and vessels. People with good nutritional habits are better able to withstand mesocolon is a specific portion of the mesentery that supports trauma, are less likely to get sick, and are usually less seriously ill the large intestine (fig. The peritoneal covering continues around the intestinal viscera as the visceral peritoneum. The peritoneal cavity is the Knowledge Check space between the parietal and visceral portions of the peri- toneum. Which functional activities of the digestive system break peritoneum, and are therefore said to be retroperitoneal. Which functional activities move the food Retroperitoneal organs include most of the pancreas, the kid- through the GI tract? List in order the regions of the GI tract through which in- and the abdominal aorta. Digestive System © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Body Companies, 2001 Chapter 18 Digestive System 637 In a female, however, it is not isolated from the outside, which pre- Notochord sents the potential for contamination through the entry of microorgan- Neural tube isms. A fairly common gynecological condition is pelvic inflammatory Aorta disease (PID), which results from the entry of pathogens into the peri- toneal cavity at the sites of the open-ended uterine (fallopian) tubes. Mesentery Parietal peritoneum Gut Peritoneal cavity Layers of the Gastrointestinal Tract Liver Visceral peritoneum The GI tract from the esophagus to the anal canal is composed of four layers, or tunics. Each tunic contains a dominant tissue type Body wall that performs specific functions in the digestive process. The four tunics of the GI tract, from the inside out, are the mucosa, sub- mucosa, muscularis, and serosa (fig. Umbilical cord Mucosa The mucosa, which lines the lumen of the GI tract, is both an absorptive and a secretory layer. External to the lamina propria are thin layers of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosae, which provide limited involuntary churning movements. Specialized goblet cells in the mucosa throughout most of the GI tract se- Peritonitis is a bacterial inflammation of the peritoneum. Treatment usually involves the injection Submucosa of massive doses of antibiotics, and perhaps peritoneal intubation (insertion of a tube) to permit drainage. The relatively thick submucosa is a highly vascular layer of con- nective tissue serving the mucosa. Absorbed molecules that pass Extensions of the parietal peritoneum serve to suspend or through the columnar epithelial cells of the mucosa enter into anchor numerous organs within the peritoneal cavity (fig. In addition to The falciform (fal'sı˘-form) ligament, a serous membrane rein- blood vessels, the submucosa contains glands and nerve plexuses. Functions of the greater omentum include storing fat, cushioning visceral organs, sup- The tunica muscularis is responsible for segmental contractions porting lymph nodes, and protecting against the spread of infec- and peristaltic movement through the GI tract. In cases of localized inflammation, such as appendicitis, inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle. It includes neurons and ganglia from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS. The peritoneal cavity provides a warm, moist, normally aseptic environment for the abdominal viscera.

The bronchial circulation is part of the systemic circulation and does not participate in gas exchange generic super p-force oral jelly 160mg on line erectile dysfunction treatment diet. FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE mately equal to the stroke volume of the right ventricle PULMONARY CIRCULATION (about 80 mL) under most physiological conditions discount 160 mg super p-force oral jelly fast delivery erectile dysfunction patient.co.uk doctor. The heart drives two separate and distinct circulatory sys- tems in the body: the pulmonary circulation and the sys- The Pulmonary Circulation Functions in Gas temic circulation. The pulmonary circulation is analogous Exchange and as a Filter, Metabolic Organ, and to the entire systemic circulation. Similar to the systemic Blood Reservoir circulation, the pulmonary circulation receives all of the cardiac output. Therefore, the pulmonary circulation is not The primary function of the pulmonary circulation is to a regional circulation like the renal, hepatic, or coronary bring venous blood from the superior and inferior vena circulations. In addition to gas exchange, the pul- systemic vascular resistance has for the left ventricle. Each time an airway branches, Pulmonary vessels protect the body against thrombi the arterial tree branches so that the two parallel each other (blood clots) and emboli (fat globules or air bubbles) from (Fig. More than 40% of lung weight is comprised of entering important vessels in other organs. The total blood vol- emboli often occur after surgery or injury and enter the sys- ume of the pulmonary circulation (main pulmonary artery temic venous blood. Small pulmonary arterial vessels and to left atrium) is approximately 500 mL or 10% of the total capillaries trap the thrombi and emboli and prevent them circulating blood volume (5,000 mL). The pulmonary veins from obstructing the vital coronary, cerebral, and renal ves- contain more blood (270 mL) than the arteries (150 mL). Endothelial cells lining the pulmonary vessels release The blood volume in the pulmonary capillaries is approxi- fibrinolytic substances that help dissolve thrombi. Emboli, 337 338 PART V RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY A Lung The lungs serve as a blood reservoir. Approximately 500 mL or 10% of the total circulating blood volume is in the Bronchus pulmonary circulation. During hemorrhagic shock, some of Pleura this blood can be mobilized to improve the cardiac output. Pulmonary artery The Pulmonary Circulation Has Pulmonary Unique Hemodynamic Features vein In contrast to the systemic circulation, the pulmonary cir- culation is a high-flow, low-pressure, low-resistance sys- B tem. The pulmonary artery and its branches have much Pulmonary arteriole thinner walls than the aorta and are more compliant. The Muscle strand pulmonary artery is much shorter and contains less elastin Alveolus and smooth muscle in its walls. The pulmonary arterioles Pulmonary venule are thin-walled and contain little smooth muscle and, con- sequently, have less ability to constrict than the thick- walled, highly muscular systemic arterioles. The pulmonary veins are also thin-walled, highly compliant, and contain little smooth muscle compared with their counterparts in Respiratory bronchiole the systemic circulation. Unlike the Alveolar capillary systemic capillaries, which are often arranged as a network of tubular vessels with some interconnections, the pulmonary capillaries mesh together in the alveolar wall so that blood flows as a thin sheet. It is, therefore, misleading to refer to pulmonary capillaries as a capillary network; they comprise a Parallel structure of the vascular and air- dense capillary bed. A, Systemic venous blood flows ceedingly thin, and a whole capillary bed can collapse if lo- through the pulmonary arteries into the alveolar capillaries and cal alveolar pressure exceeds capillary pressure. B, A mesh of capillaries surrounds each alve- ingly in their pressure profiles (Fig. As the blood passes through the capillaries, it gives up car- arterial pressure is 15 mm Hg, compared with 93 mm Hg in bon dioxide and takes up oxygen. The driving pressure (10 mm Hg) for pulmonary flow is the difference between the mean pressure in the pul- especially air emboli, are absorbed through the pulmonary monary artery (15 mm Hg) and the pressure in the left capillary walls. These pulmonary pressures are meas- monary vessel, gas exchange can be severely impaired and ured using a Swan-Ganz catheter, a thin, flexible tube with can cause death. A similar situation occurs if emboli are ex- an inflatable rubber balloon surrounding the distal end.

The aging of the baby boom population has Microscopic pathology indicates two classic signs of the made AD one of the fastest growing diseases; estimates disease even at the earliest stages: the presence of senile indicate that by the year 2040 buy super p-force oral jelly 160mg lowest price erectile dysfunction hiv medications, some 14 million people in plaques (SPs) and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) discount super p-force oral jelly 160 mg amex erectile dysfunction quitting smoking. Early on, there is mild memory impairment; as the disease While many neurotransmitter systems are implicated progresses, memory problems increase and difficulties in AD, the most consistent pathology is the loss or atro- with language are generally observed, including word- phy of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain. Many pa- ications that ameliorate the cognitive symptoms of AD tients also exhibit difficulty with visuospatial tasks. These observations sonality changes are common, and patients become emphasize the importance of cholinergic systems in cog- disoriented as the memory problems worsen. CHAPTER 7 Integrative Functions of the Nervous System 133 Primary Primary somatic coordinate aspects of understanding and executing speech motor cortex sensory cortex and language skills. Patients with a defect in Broca’s area show evidence of comprehending a spoken or written word but they are not able to say the word. In contrast, patients with damage in Wernicke’s area can produce speech, but the words they put together have Primary little meaning. This dominance is observed in left-handed as well as auditory cortex right-handed individuals. Moreover, it is language that is lateralized, not the reception or production of speech. Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas and the pri- Thus native signers (individuals who use sign language) FIGURE 7. REVIEW QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Each of the numbered (A) Adrenaline removal of a tumor and concomitant items or incomplete statements in this (B) Leptin destruction of surrounding tissue, a section is followed by answers or by (C) Melanocyte-stimulating hormone patient’s hypothalamus no longer completions of the statement. The most ONE lettered answer or completion that is (E) Vasopressin likely location of this tumor was in BEST in each case. The basal forebrain nuclei and the (A) The body’s internal clock pedunculopontine nuclei are similar in (B) A direct neural pathway from the 1. An EEG technician can look at an that neurons within them optic nerve to the suprachiasmatic electroencephalogram and tell that the (A) Are major inputs to the striatum nucleus subject was awake, but relaxed with (B) Receive innervation from the (C) The reticular formation eyes closed, during generation of the cingulate gyrus (D) A projection from the occipital recording. She can tell this because the (C) Process information related to lobe of the cerebral cortex to the EEG recording exhibits language construction hypothalamus (A) Alpha rhythm (D) Utilize acetylcholine as their (E) The pineal gland (B) Beta rhythm neurotransmitter 7. Posterior pituitary hormone secretion (C) Theta rhythm (E) Are atrophied in patients with is mediated by (D) Delta rhythm schizophrenia (A) A portal capillary system from the (E) Variable rhythm 5. A scientist develops a reagent that hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary 2. A patient’s wife complains that, several allows identification of leptin-sensing (B) The fight-or-flight response times during the last few weeks, her neurons in the CNS. The reagent is a (C) The hypothalamo-hypophyseal husband struck her as he flailed around fluorescent compound that binds to tract originating from magnocellular violently during sleep. The husband the plasma membrane of cells that neurons in the supraoptic and indicates that when he wakes up sense leptin. Application of this paraventricular nuclei during one of these sessions, he has reagent to sections of the brain would (D) The reticular activating system’s been dreaming. What is the likely result in fluorescent staining located in input to the hypothalamus cause of his problem? Language and speech require the (B) Increased drive to the motor cortex (B) Mammillary nuclei of the participation of both Wernicke’s area during REM sleep hypothalamus and Broca’s area. These two regions of (C) Lack of behavioral inhibition by (C) Paraventricular nucleus of the the brain communicate with each other the prefrontal cortex during sleep hypothalamus via a fiber bundle called (D) Lack of abolished muscle tone (D) Preoptic nucleus of the (A) The thalamocortical tract during REM sleep hypothalamus (B) The reticular activating system (E) Abnormal functioning of the (E) Ventromedial nucleus of the (C) The prefrontal lobe amygdala during paradoxical sleep thalamus (D) The fornix 3. The hypothalamus receives cues (E) The arcuate fasciculus gland under control of the concerning the cycle of sunlight and 9. A chemist is trying to produce a new suprachiasmatic nucleus is darkness in a 24-hour day. To be an effective (continued) 134 PART II NEUROPHYSIOLOGY neuroleptic, the new compound must (A) Recalling an old declarative (D) Noradrenergic pathways target memory (E) Serotonergic pathways (A) Acetylcholine receptors (B) Recalling an old procedural 15. Persons with mild cognitive (B) Dopamine receptors memory impairments who smoke may (C) Neuropeptide Y receptors (C) Forming a new short-term memory experience a worsening of symptoms if (D) Norepinephrine receptors (D) Forming a new long-term memory they stop smoking. This worsening of (E) Serotonin receptors (E) Forming a new procedural memory symptoms is because nicotine acts as 10. An older gentleman is brought to the an agonist for receptors of a particular destroyed the intralaminar nuclei of emergency department (ED) by his neurotransmitter. She had gone to his house neurotransmitter is stroke was confirmed by magnetic for lunch, which she did on a daily (A) Acetylcholine resonance imaging of the brain; basis. During her visit that day, she (B) Dopamine however, an indication that the stroke was alarmed because his speech did not (C) Neuropeptide Y affected these nuclei was provided make sense to her even though he (D) Nitric oxide prior to imaging by an alteration in talked a lot and the words themselves (E) Serotonin arousal in the patient.