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Basidomycetes are classified under the Fungi kingdom as belonging to the phylum –mycota (i cheap 100mg zenegra mastercard erectile dysfunction protocol amino acids. Some live in a sym- for the series of fundamental contributions he has made to the biotic relationship with plant roots (Mycorrhizae) 100 mg zenegra mastercard impotence natural. He was the first per- termed basidium is responsible for sexual spore formation in son to visualize the yellow fever virus in cultured cells, and to Basidomycetes, through nuclear fusion followed by meiosis, obtain ultrathin sections of the changes caused to the cell wall thus forming haploid basidiospores. Fungi pertaining to the of Escherichia coli by the antibiotic penicillin. In the 1960s, he identi- that are formed when the two nuclei in the apical cell of a fied zones of adhesion between the inner and outer hypha divide simultaneously. Bayer’s rigorous experiments axis and the other into the clamp, thus giving origin to a tem- established that these adhesion zones that were apparent in porary monokaryotic clamp cell that is then fused to the sub thin sections of cells examined by the technique of transmis- apical cell, restoring the dikaryotic status. Spores are lined sion electron microscopy had biochemical significance e. Each spore usually for passage of viruses into the bacterium, specific site of cer- bears the haploid product of meiosis. In recognition of his efforts, the adhe- the spores may remain dormant for long periods, from months sion sites were dubbed “Bayer’s adhesion zones. When conditions are favorable, the spores germinate Bayer was born in Görlitz, Prussia (now Poland). A Following his high school education he enrolled in the biol- dikaryotic mycelium is formed as the result of the fusion of ogy program at the University of Kiel in Germany. Following this, he was accepted more often than not disseminated through the wind, either by for medical studies at the University of Hamburg, Germany. He completed his preclinical training in 1953 and clinical Basidomycetes comprises over 15,000 species, belong- training in 1955. From 1957 to 1959 he studied physics at the ing to 15 different orders, most of them wood-rotting species. During this same period he earned his Some examples of Basidomycetes are as follows: Coral accreditation as a physician, and undertook research studies Fungus or Ramaria, pertaining to the Hymeniales order; in pathology. This research led to a Research Associate posi- Stinkhorn or Phallus, from the Phallales order; Corn smut or tion at the University of Hamburg from 1957 to 1961. Also Ustilago, from the Ustilaginales order; Puffball or during this period Bayer undertook diploma studies at the Lycoperdon, from the Lycoperdales order; White Button Pizza university’s Institute of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. The cell walls of fungi contain distinct layers, mainly From 1960 to 1962, Bayer was an Assistant Member of constituted by chitin and not by cellulose. Multicellular fungi the Institute of Tropical Diseases and Parasitology. Then, he such as mushrooms have their vegetative bodies constituted immigrated to the United States to take up the position of 57 Beckwith, Jonathan Roger WORLD OF MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY Research Associate with The Institute of Cancer Research in Molecular Genetics in 1969). He has remained at the institute ever since, as an Professor in 1966, an Associate Professor in 1968, and a Assistant Member (1964–1967), Associate Member Professor in 1969. As membrane dynamics and division in the bacterium well, he was an Adjunct Professor for Microbiology at the Escherichia coli have been of fundamental importance in both University of Pennsylvania Medical School (1971–2000) and basic bacteriology and in the development of clinical strate- a Honorary Visiting Professor at Dalhousie University, gies to deal with Escherichia coli infections. The resins are used to solidify samples so that thin Beckwith has also been an active commentator on the social sections can be cut for electron microscopic examination. The scope and importance of Beckwith’s achievements In 1968, Bayer and his colleagues deduced the structure in fundamental bacterial genetics and societal aspects of of the structural units that form the hepatitis virus. Their dis- genetics have been recognized by his receipt of many awards covery led to the formulation of a vaccine. These include a Merit Award from the National In addition to his research activities, Bayer has been a Institutes of Health (1986), the Eli Lilly Award for outstanding teacher and mentor to hundreds of students over four decades. Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science (1977), fellow- His laboratory remains one of the most productive and inno- ship in the American Academy of Microbiology, and over 15 vative microbial genetics labs in the world. See also Bacterial adaptation; Microbial genetics See also Bacterial ultrastructure; Electron microscopic exam- ination of microorganisms Behring, Emil vonBEHRING, EMIL VON (1854-1917) German bacteriologist BEAVER FEVER • see GIARDIA AND GIARDIASIS Emil von Behring’s discovery of the diphtheria and tetanus antitoxins paved the way for the prevention of these diseases through the use of immunization. It also opened the door for BBeckwith, Jonathan RogerECKWITH, JONATHAN ROGER (1935- ) the specific treatment of such diseases with the injection of American microbiologist immune serum. Behring’s stature as a seminal figure in mod- ern medicine and immunology was recognized in 1901, when Jonathan Roger Beckwith is the American Cancer Society he received the first Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine. Research Professor of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics Emil Adolf von Behring was born in Hansdorf, West at Harvard Medical School in Boston, Massachusetts.

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The test is usually negative in a skew devi- ation causing vertical divergence of the eyes safe zenegra 100 mg erectile dysfunction instrumental. This test may also be used as part of the assessment of vertical diplopia to see whether hyper- tropia changes with head tilt to left or right; increased hypertropia on left head tilt suggests a weak intortor of the left eye (superior rectus); increased hypertropia on right head tilt suggests a weak intortor of the right eye (superior oblique) buy zenegra 100 mg otc erectile dysfunction ginseng. Cross References Diplopia; Hypertropia; Skew deviation Bitemporal Hemianopia - see HEMIANOPIA; VISUAL FIELD DEFECTS Blepharoptosis - see PTOSIS Blepharospasm Blepharospasm is a focal dystonia of the orbicularis oculi resulting in repeated involuntary forced eyelid closure, with failure of voluntary opening. The condition typically begins in the sixth decade of life, and is com- moner in women than men. Blepharospasm may occur in isolation or in combination with other involuntary movements which may be dys- tonic (orobuccolingual dystonia or Meige syndrome; limb dystonia) or dyspraxic (eyelid apraxia). Blepharospasm is usually idiopathic but may be associated with lesions (usually infarction) of the rostral brainstem, diencephalon, and striatum; it has been occasionally reported with thalamic lesions. The - 55 - B Blind Spot pathophysiological mechanisms underlying blepharospasm are not understood, but may reflect dopaminergic pathway disruption causing disinhibition of brainstem reflexes. Local injections of botulinum toxin into orbicularis oculi are the treatment of choice, the majority of patients deriving benefit and requesting further injection. Failure to respond to botulinum toxin may be due to concurrent eyelid apraxia or dopaminergic therapy with levodopa. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1988; 51: 767-772 Hallett M, Daroff RB. Neurology 1996; 46: 1213-1218 Cross References Blinking; Dystonia; Eyelid apraxia; Gaping; Yawning Blind Spot The blind spot is defined anatomically as the point on the retina at which axons from the retinal ganglion cells enter the optic nerve; since this area is devoid of photoreceptors there is a physiological blind spot. This area may be mapped clinically by confrontation with the examiner’s blind spot, or mechanically. Enlargement of the blind spot (peripapillary scotoma) is observed with raised intracranial pressure causing papilledema: this may be helpful in differentiating papilledema from other causes of disc swelling, such as optic neuritis, in which a central scotoma is the most common field defect. Enlargement of the blind spot may also be a feature of peripapillary retinal disorders including big blind spot syndrome. Cross References Disc swelling; Papilledema; Scotoma Blinking Involuntary blinking rate is decreased in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease (and may be improved by dopaminergic therapy) and progressive supranuclear palsy (Steele-Richardson-Olszewski syndrome). In contrast, blink rate is normal in multiple system atrophy and dopa-responsive dys- tonia, and increased in schizophrenia and postencephalitic parkinsonism. These disparate observations are not easily reconciled with the suggestion that blinking might be a marker of central dopaminergic activity. In patients with impaired consciousness, the presence of invol- untary blinking implies an intact pontine reticular formation; absence suggests structural or metabolic dysfunction of the reticular forma- tion. Cross References Balint’s syndrome; Blink reflex; Coma; Corneal reflex; Parkinsonism; Sighing; Yawning - 56 - Body Part as Object B Blink Reflex The blink reflex consists of bilateral reflex contraction of the orbicu- laris oculi muscles. This may be induced by: ● Mechanical stimulus: Examples include percussion over the supraorbital ridge (glabellar tap reflex, Myerson’s sign, nasopalpebral reflex): this quickly habituates with repetitive stimulation in normal individuals; touching the cornea (corneal reflex); stroking the eyelashes in unconscious patients with closed eyes (“eyelash reflex”). Care should be taken to avoid generating air currents with the hand movement as this may stimulate the corneal reflex which may simulate the visuopalpebral reflex. It is probable that this reflex requires cortical processing: it is lost in persistent vegetative states. Loss of this reflex may occur in Balint’s syndrome, ascribed to inability to recognize the nearness of the threatening object. The final common (efferent) pathway for these responses is the facial nerve nucleus and facial (VII) nerve, the afferent limbs being the trigeminal (V), optic (II), and auditory (VIII) nerves respectively. Electrophysiological study of the blink reflex may demonstrate peripheral or central lesions of the trigeminal (V) nerve or facial (VII) nerve (afferent and efferent pathways, respectively). It has been reported that in the evaluation of sensory neuronopathy the finding of an abnormal blink reflex favors a nonparaneoplastic etiology, since the blink reflex is normal in paraneoplastic sensory neuronopathies. Journal of Clinical Neuro-ophthalmology 1992; 12: 47-56 Cross References Balint’s syndrome; Blinking; Corneal reflex; Glabellar tap reflex Body Part as Object In this phenomenon, apraxic patients use a body part when asked to pan- tomime certain actions, such as using the palm when asked to demon- strate the use of a hair brush or comb, or fingers when asked to demonstrate use of scissors or a toothbrush. Ideomotor apraxia in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: why do they use their body parts as objects? Neuro- psychiatry Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology 2001; 14: 45-52 Cross References Apraxia “Bon-Bon Sign” Involuntary pushing of the tongue against the inside of the cheek, the “bon-bon sign,” is said to be typical of the stereotypic orolingual move- ments of tardive dyskinesia, along with chewing and smacking of the mouth and lips, and rolling of the tongue in the mouth. These signs may help to distinguish tardive dyskinesia from chorea, although periodic pro- trusion of the tongue (flycatcher, trombone tongue) is common to both. Cross References Chorea, Choreoathetosis; Trombone tongue Bouche de Tapir Patients with facioscapulohumeral (FSH) dystrophy have a peculiar and characteristic facies, with puckering of the lips when attempting to whistle. The pouting quality of the mouth, unlike that seen with other types of bilateral (neurogenic) facial weakness, has been likened to the face of the tapir (Tapirus sp.

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